I hesitate to believe Wikipedia, as it is not a valid source, but it can be a helpful resource for general information, and in some regards probably even better than the book "History of Xerxes the Great" that I just finished.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amestris
Amestris was married to Xerxes and mother of Artaxerxes, and known among ancient Greek historians to be very bad.
It is not known how far her evilness carried her. Documents have shown that human sacrifices were not permissible in the Persian religion (the History of Xerxes mentions human sacrifices, but that might be inaccurate info or come from biased Greek historians).
After Xerxes death she remained influential.
It is possible that she is the biblical Esther. "Wilson who identified Ahasuerus with Xerxes I and Esther with Amestris, suggested that both "Amestris" and "Esther" derived from Akkadian words Ammi-Ishtar or Ummi-Ishtar [2]. Hoschander alternatively suggested Ishtar-udda-sha ("Ishtar is her light") as the origin with the possibility of -udda-sha being connected with the similarly sounding Hebrew name Hadassah."
Sources for this Wikipedia article were:
http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/ctesias/photius_persica2.html
http://net.bible.org/dictionary.php?word=Ahasbai
(note: I also liked this link for a Greece time line.
http://www.ancient-greece.org/resources/timeline.html)
Wikipedia also has a good article pertaining to Xerxes:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I_of_Persia
Thursday, January 15, 2009
Xerxes: Battle of Salamis
(History of Xerxes the Great)
*Salamis = an island of irregular form which is north of Egina and westward of Athens
*The Port of Athens was not far from there, so when Athens was burned they were able to see the smoke rising.
*the fleets had battled in directly opposite the Artemisian Strait while the armies were fighting at Thermopylae, until the Greeks had captured the pass and defeated Leonidas. Then the Persian ships left, and the Greek ships fell back to Salamis. When they found out that Athens had fallen they contemplated falling back to the isthmus shore. The Athenians wanted to remain, but the Corinthians wanted to fall back.
*The commander-in-chief Eurybiades, seeing it was impossible to keep everyone decided it would be best to concede and and conduct the fleet to the isthmus.
*The eve before, an influential and distinguished general named Themistocles retired to his ship
but was later visited by Mnesiphilus to inquire about the decision of the council. Upon hearing about the decision to withdraw, he commented that they would never have an opportunity to meet the enemy, as most likely withdrawing would cause the fleet to be broken up and not remain as a combined allied force.
*Themistocles went and talked with Eurybiades and relayed the arguments to him. A new council was convened. The new arguments were given and some additional ones that Themistocles came up with. He thought that Salamis would be a better place for fighting, as the projections of the land favored them and they could only be attacked by the front. At the isthmus that was not so, and they also could not utilized land troops at the isthmus. The Corinthians did not agree with the reasoning, but in the end Eurybiades gave in, especially after the Athenian ships determined to abandon the cause if they didn't stay at Salamis.
*The Persian fleets and Xerxes and his land troops drew near, but pause to convene a war council on board one of the principal galleys. A throne was provided for Xerxes, and seats for the various commanders, including for Artemisia (A Carian queen who was a prominent navel commander). Mardonius was the king's representative who spoke words to the people of which Xerxes bid him to speak and vice versa.
*All the commanders advised attacking the Greeks at Salamis, except for Artemisia. She warned against attacking the Greeks during their fury, suggested that they could either leave or just wait it out for them to starve etc. Surprisingly, Xerxes was not angered, although he did not follow her advice.
*Meanwhile, Themistocles feared a revolt, so he devised a plan in which he sent his slave Sicinnus to the Persian fleet and to tell them that Themistocles considered the cause of the Greeks to be lost and that he wanted to come over to their side, but could not openly do so on account of his situation, and that also the Greek fleet was in a state of disorder and dissensions and that some were secretly intending to escape. He urged the Persians to attack now and surround them, so that the whole squadron would fall into his hands.
*The Persians sent some galleys to the nearby island of Psyttalia to take possession of the island and prevent any Greeks from escaping in that direction. They also sent a detachment westward to prevent escape in that direction as well.
*Aristides came from far away and informed the Greeks that they were surrounded etc. A great amount of discord broke out and many did not believe it. However, soon after that a large galley arrived from the Persian fleet, which had been a Greek fleet (led by Paraetius) that had surrendered but wanted to come over to them since they didn't want to fight against his countrymen. This put an end to the debates and discord. (After the battle they were honored for their bravery in coming over by having all of their names engraved upon a sacred tripod and sent to the oracle at Delphi.)
*Xerxes had a throne erected again on a nearby eminence, along with guards, and scribes to document the noble deeds he was sure he would see. It was also to act as a means of punishment as well, and many commanders who lost their ships and were washed up on shore were brought to him and beheaded. Many of them were Greeks, who were not compelled to be successful in fighting against their countrymen.
*During the battle Artemisia got separated from the rest of Persian ships, except for that of Damasithymus whom she did not get along with. In order to save her ship, she pretended to be Greek and attacked the Persian ship and sunk it and killed everyone aboard. Ironically, Xerxes recognized her ship by some of the peculiarities in the wood, but he and his aids thought that she was attacking a Greek ship. Xerxes was quite impressed, and thought that she was the only commander who acted like a man while the rest of his men acted like women.
*The Greeks fought well and after several hours the Persians had to draw back.
*An interesting thing happened with Aristides. Originally, he had been expelled from Athens under the influence of Themistocles, and though he had crossed the Aegina to meet the fleet at Salamis he had been left on the shores as a spectator. There was also a small number of guard troops left. During combat when Aristides found the services of the guards no longer necessary, he took over, took possession of boats or a galley, transported the men across the galley, and attacked all the Persians on the island of Psyttalia, conquered and killed them all.
*The Greeks were the victors that day, but the loss of this battle was the final blow to Xerxes and he resolved to head speedily back to Susa.
*Mardonius asked for permission to stay behind with 300,000 troops to finish. After much thought and consulting with advisors (specifically Artemisia), he agreed.
*Xerxes pretended for a time to be preparing for another attack, so that the Greeks would not suspect their retreat and stop his passage.
*There was debate among the Greeks as to whether to follow them, and ultimately they decided not to, much to Themistocles disappointment.
*It took Xerxes 45 days to return to the Hellespont, and upon his arrival he found that storms had destroyed it.
*Mardonius did indeed stay, but he was not able to be successful and eventually died in battle.
*Xerxes had enough of battle and determined to indulge in pleasures the rest of his life.
*He had three sons eligible to be heirs - Darius, Hysterical, and Artaxerxes.
*His uncle Artabanus disappears from view after returning to Susa, but another Artabanus became a captain of the king's bodyguard and the common executioner.
*One day Xerxes became mad with his son Darius and ordered Artabanus to execute him, but he supposed the king to not mean it since he was in a drunk stupor. However, the next day the king was mad with him for not carrying it out. Artabanus grew fearful and decided to employ plans which had long been revolving in his head to destroy all of Xerxes' family. He got the chamberlain in on his plans, and went in during the night to the king's bed chamber and murdered him in his sleep.
*He then went into Artaxerxes' (the youngest) chamber, woke him, and told him that his brother Darius had killed the king in order to get the throne, and was planning on killing him next.
*Artaxerxes rushed into his brother's room and killed him. Other assassinations followed, including Artabanus and his adherents.
*Artaxerxes took "quiet" possession of the throne.
*Salamis = an island of irregular form which is north of Egina and westward of Athens
*The Port of Athens was not far from there, so when Athens was burned they were able to see the smoke rising.
*the fleets had battled in directly opposite the Artemisian Strait while the armies were fighting at Thermopylae, until the Greeks had captured the pass and defeated Leonidas. Then the Persian ships left, and the Greek ships fell back to Salamis. When they found out that Athens had fallen they contemplated falling back to the isthmus shore. The Athenians wanted to remain, but the Corinthians wanted to fall back.
*The commander-in-chief Eurybiades, seeing it was impossible to keep everyone decided it would be best to concede and and conduct the fleet to the isthmus.
*The eve before, an influential and distinguished general named Themistocles retired to his ship
but was later visited by Mnesiphilus to inquire about the decision of the council. Upon hearing about the decision to withdraw, he commented that they would never have an opportunity to meet the enemy, as most likely withdrawing would cause the fleet to be broken up and not remain as a combined allied force.
*Themistocles went and talked with Eurybiades and relayed the arguments to him. A new council was convened. The new arguments were given and some additional ones that Themistocles came up with. He thought that Salamis would be a better place for fighting, as the projections of the land favored them and they could only be attacked by the front. At the isthmus that was not so, and they also could not utilized land troops at the isthmus. The Corinthians did not agree with the reasoning, but in the end Eurybiades gave in, especially after the Athenian ships determined to abandon the cause if they didn't stay at Salamis.
*The Persian fleets and Xerxes and his land troops drew near, but pause to convene a war council on board one of the principal galleys. A throne was provided for Xerxes, and seats for the various commanders, including for Artemisia (A Carian queen who was a prominent navel commander). Mardonius was the king's representative who spoke words to the people of which Xerxes bid him to speak and vice versa.
*All the commanders advised attacking the Greeks at Salamis, except for Artemisia. She warned against attacking the Greeks during their fury, suggested that they could either leave or just wait it out for them to starve etc. Surprisingly, Xerxes was not angered, although he did not follow her advice.
*Meanwhile, Themistocles feared a revolt, so he devised a plan in which he sent his slave Sicinnus to the Persian fleet and to tell them that Themistocles considered the cause of the Greeks to be lost and that he wanted to come over to their side, but could not openly do so on account of his situation, and that also the Greek fleet was in a state of disorder and dissensions and that some were secretly intending to escape. He urged the Persians to attack now and surround them, so that the whole squadron would fall into his hands.
*The Persians sent some galleys to the nearby island of Psyttalia to take possession of the island and prevent any Greeks from escaping in that direction. They also sent a detachment westward to prevent escape in that direction as well.
*Aristides came from far away and informed the Greeks that they were surrounded etc. A great amount of discord broke out and many did not believe it. However, soon after that a large galley arrived from the Persian fleet, which had been a Greek fleet (led by Paraetius) that had surrendered but wanted to come over to them since they didn't want to fight against his countrymen. This put an end to the debates and discord. (After the battle they were honored for their bravery in coming over by having all of their names engraved upon a sacred tripod and sent to the oracle at Delphi.)
*Xerxes had a throne erected again on a nearby eminence, along with guards, and scribes to document the noble deeds he was sure he would see. It was also to act as a means of punishment as well, and many commanders who lost their ships and were washed up on shore were brought to him and beheaded. Many of them were Greeks, who were not compelled to be successful in fighting against their countrymen.
*During the battle Artemisia got separated from the rest of Persian ships, except for that of Damasithymus whom she did not get along with. In order to save her ship, she pretended to be Greek and attacked the Persian ship and sunk it and killed everyone aboard. Ironically, Xerxes recognized her ship by some of the peculiarities in the wood, but he and his aids thought that she was attacking a Greek ship. Xerxes was quite impressed, and thought that she was the only commander who acted like a man while the rest of his men acted like women.
*The Greeks fought well and after several hours the Persians had to draw back.
*An interesting thing happened with Aristides. Originally, he had been expelled from Athens under the influence of Themistocles, and though he had crossed the Aegina to meet the fleet at Salamis he had been left on the shores as a spectator. There was also a small number of guard troops left. During combat when Aristides found the services of the guards no longer necessary, he took over, took possession of boats or a galley, transported the men across the galley, and attacked all the Persians on the island of Psyttalia, conquered and killed them all.
*The Greeks were the victors that day, but the loss of this battle was the final blow to Xerxes and he resolved to head speedily back to Susa.
*Mardonius asked for permission to stay behind with 300,000 troops to finish. After much thought and consulting with advisors (specifically Artemisia), he agreed.
*Xerxes pretended for a time to be preparing for another attack, so that the Greeks would not suspect their retreat and stop his passage.
*There was debate among the Greeks as to whether to follow them, and ultimately they decided not to, much to Themistocles disappointment.
*It took Xerxes 45 days to return to the Hellespont, and upon his arrival he found that storms had destroyed it.
*Mardonius did indeed stay, but he was not able to be successful and eventually died in battle.
*Xerxes had enough of battle and determined to indulge in pleasures the rest of his life.
*He had three sons eligible to be heirs - Darius, Hysterical, and Artaxerxes.
*His uncle Artabanus disappears from view after returning to Susa, but another Artabanus became a captain of the king's bodyguard and the common executioner.
*One day Xerxes became mad with his son Darius and ordered Artabanus to execute him, but he supposed the king to not mean it since he was in a drunk stupor. However, the next day the king was mad with him for not carrying it out. Artabanus grew fearful and decided to employ plans which had long been revolving in his head to destroy all of Xerxes' family. He got the chamberlain in on his plans, and went in during the night to the king's bed chamber and murdered him in his sleep.
*He then went into Artaxerxes' (the youngest) chamber, woke him, and told him that his brother Darius had killed the king in order to get the throne, and was planning on killing him next.
*Artaxerxes rushed into his brother's room and killed him. Other assassinations followed, including Artabanus and his adherents.
*Artaxerxes took "quiet" possession of the throne.
Xerxes: the Burning of Athens
(History of Xerxes the Great)
*after the battle at Thermopylae the Persian fleet pursued the Greek fleet which had retreated to Salamis
*The Thessalians helped Xerxes troops as guides, as they harbored many bitter feelings for the Phocaeans. They had done battle with them before, and were extremely vexed by a couple of their stratagems. One involved the Phocaeans painting their faces white and attacking them at night, and the second involved them creating hidden traps in the ground into which their horses fell.
*Xerxes attacked and plundered many towns on his path. One particularly interesting attack was against the city of Delphi. Delphi was in a position of difficult access, and was considered impregnable in military strength and also under protection by Apollo. It was celebrated throughout the world for its oracle and magnificence in architecture, art, and its treasures. Great rulers who came to inquire of the oracle would bring great gifts. In the time of Xerxes it had been famous for several hundred years.
*Delphi was originally found by some herdsmen who had been on the mountains watching their flocks, when one day they saw some of their goats performing strange antics among some crevices in the rocks, and when they went over they found a mysterious wind coming from the crevices which produced a strange exhilaration for anyone who breathed it. The news of this spread and it was supposed that the breathing of the air was a divine inspiration and a temple was built on the spot with priests and priestesses and a city began to rise.
*The main body of Xerxes troops headed southward towards Athens, but a large detachment separated and headed westward toward Delphi to plunder the temples and the city. The people of Delphi were full of fear, and inquired of the oracle what they should do. The oracle said that they should do nothing with the treasures, and that the divinity could protect that which was its own. They just had to provide for themselves and their families. Upon hearing that they removed their families and own effects to a place of safety, and a military force remained behind and a small number of inhabitants.
*As the Persians drew near, a weird occurrence happened. A suit of arms hung in the inner and sacred apartments of the temple and forbidden to be touched were found removed to the outward front of the temple. As the Persians came still nearer, loud thunder burst from the sky and a bold detached two enormous masses of rock which rolled down upon the invaders. Then the Delphian soldiers rushed down upon them amid the state of confusion. They were led on by the spirits of two ancient heroes who appeared in the form of tall & full-armored warriors, did wondrous things, and disappeared after the battle.
*Meanwhile in Athens, the rulers had given up hope and told the inhabitants to seek refuge wherever they could find it. Thus the city was evacuated, but a few remained behind believing that earlier words from the Delphi of "wooden walls" meant the wooden palisade around the citadel and not the ships of the fleet.
*Xerxes had no problem taking the city of Athens, for the few people remaining had gone to the citadel (which was on an oblong rocky hill and the sides of which were perpendicular cliffs), had built a wooden palisade across the only approach and put rocks on top to roll down upon the assailants. Xerxes plundered and burned the town, and then took up his position on a hill opposite the citadel and had some constructions made in which to throw enormous flaming arrows. The wooden wall was completely consumed. It was still hard to climb, but after a long conflict and many deaths, Xerxes succeeded in getting into the citadel. Some of his troops had found a path which allowed them to climb up the wall and open the gate from inside after fighting the guards inside. The citadel was also set on fire.
*Xerxes was very happy with his success at Athens, for that had been his chief desire to destroy Athens and he dispatched a messenger to take the news to Susa.
(side note: to be noted the Greeks, specifically Sparta, had been warned by Demaratus in advance of the coming battles. He sent them a mess on two writing tablets by cleverly etching in wood or metal the message and then covering it with the wax paper to hide the message. Writing was usually done on top of the wax.)
(side note: The Persians had so desperately wanted to burn Athens, because the Athenians had earlier burned a Persian city.)
*after the battle at Thermopylae the Persian fleet pursued the Greek fleet which had retreated to Salamis
*The Thessalians helped Xerxes troops as guides, as they harbored many bitter feelings for the Phocaeans. They had done battle with them before, and were extremely vexed by a couple of their stratagems. One involved the Phocaeans painting their faces white and attacking them at night, and the second involved them creating hidden traps in the ground into which their horses fell.
*Xerxes attacked and plundered many towns on his path. One particularly interesting attack was against the city of Delphi. Delphi was in a position of difficult access, and was considered impregnable in military strength and also under protection by Apollo. It was celebrated throughout the world for its oracle and magnificence in architecture, art, and its treasures. Great rulers who came to inquire of the oracle would bring great gifts. In the time of Xerxes it had been famous for several hundred years.
*Delphi was originally found by some herdsmen who had been on the mountains watching their flocks, when one day they saw some of their goats performing strange antics among some crevices in the rocks, and when they went over they found a mysterious wind coming from the crevices which produced a strange exhilaration for anyone who breathed it. The news of this spread and it was supposed that the breathing of the air was a divine inspiration and a temple was built on the spot with priests and priestesses and a city began to rise.
*The main body of Xerxes troops headed southward towards Athens, but a large detachment separated and headed westward toward Delphi to plunder the temples and the city. The people of Delphi were full of fear, and inquired of the oracle what they should do. The oracle said that they should do nothing with the treasures, and that the divinity could protect that which was its own. They just had to provide for themselves and their families. Upon hearing that they removed their families and own effects to a place of safety, and a military force remained behind and a small number of inhabitants.
*As the Persians drew near, a weird occurrence happened. A suit of arms hung in the inner and sacred apartments of the temple and forbidden to be touched were found removed to the outward front of the temple. As the Persians came still nearer, loud thunder burst from the sky and a bold detached two enormous masses of rock which rolled down upon the invaders. Then the Delphian soldiers rushed down upon them amid the state of confusion. They were led on by the spirits of two ancient heroes who appeared in the form of tall & full-armored warriors, did wondrous things, and disappeared after the battle.
*Meanwhile in Athens, the rulers had given up hope and told the inhabitants to seek refuge wherever they could find it. Thus the city was evacuated, but a few remained behind believing that earlier words from the Delphi of "wooden walls" meant the wooden palisade around the citadel and not the ships of the fleet.
*Xerxes had no problem taking the city of Athens, for the few people remaining had gone to the citadel (which was on an oblong rocky hill and the sides of which were perpendicular cliffs), had built a wooden palisade across the only approach and put rocks on top to roll down upon the assailants. Xerxes plundered and burned the town, and then took up his position on a hill opposite the citadel and had some constructions made in which to throw enormous flaming arrows. The wooden wall was completely consumed. It was still hard to climb, but after a long conflict and many deaths, Xerxes succeeded in getting into the citadel. Some of his troops had found a path which allowed them to climb up the wall and open the gate from inside after fighting the guards inside. The citadel was also set on fire.
*Xerxes was very happy with his success at Athens, for that had been his chief desire to destroy Athens and he dispatched a messenger to take the news to Susa.
(side note: to be noted the Greeks, specifically Sparta, had been warned by Demaratus in advance of the coming battles. He sent them a mess on two writing tablets by cleverly etching in wood or metal the message and then covering it with the wax paper to hide the message. Writing was usually done on top of the wax.)
(side note: The Persians had so desperately wanted to burn Athens, because the Athenians had earlier burned a Persian city.)
Xerxes: Thermopylae
(History of Xerxes the Great)
*Xerxes fleet fought at the pass of Thermopylae and gained possession of the pass (a narrow space btwn. the mountains & the sea).
*The Greeks had originally planned to fight at Thessaly, but upon further consideration they fell back to Thermopylae and Thessaly surrendered. They had a force estimated at 3-4 thousand with various states of Greece, and were commanded by the Spartan Leonidas (who had brought with him 300 of his own men). They planned to send more troops, but Xerxes advanced too quickly with over a million men.
*The Greeks debated what they should do. They considered dropping back to the isthmus, but that was strongly opposed by the Greeks who represented countries without Peloponnesus, whose states would be left wholly to the mercy of the enemy. In the end, they decided to stay, and positioned themselves in various locations.
*Xerxes thought that the small number of men would retreat, and waited a few days. But at length he did not and on the morning of the 5th day he sent out a detachment of troops (Medes) to go down the pass, seize all the Greeks and bring them back alive. The Medes were the best troops in the army, outside of the Immortals.
*However, a few hours later a messenger came asking for re-enforcements. That night they came back exhausted and with many wounded. Several had died. Xerxes was shocked and angered. The next morning he sent the Immortals. He also advanced to the area and set up a throne above to watch. The Immortals advanced, but their large number did not help, because of narrowness of the defile. The Greeks were also more athletic and had longer spears. At night the Immortals withdrew. Things continued thus for 1 or 2 more days, when a Greek countryman "Ephialtes" appeared in their camp and informed them of a secret path leading along a wild and hidden chasm in the mountains, by which he could guide a body of Persians to the summit of the hills overhanging the pass at a point below the Greek entrenchment. This would make it easy for the Persians to surround the Greeks and shut them in. Xerxes was delighted.
*Troops were sent along the unknown path, and surprisingly met up with a thousand Phocaeans who had been ordered to take possession of and guard that area. They were posted, not to repel an attack (the hidden pass was unknown), but that they might prevent the Persians from going through if those in the defile were slain or defeated. There was a short conflict, and the Phocaeans were driven off their ground and retreated. They were not pursued.
*The Greeks in the defile saw almost immediately that the Persians had descended. They considered retreating, but in the end some were dismissed and some stayed. Leonidas stayed with his 300 men, and a small band of Thebans (he had suspected them of plotting treason).
It has also been said that a few others stayed as well.
*The fight ensued and did not cease until all the Greeks had failed. The Thebans, early on, went over and joined the enemy. The Greeks fought well and killed thousands of Persians. Xerxes commanded a great hole to be dug in which he ordered all but a thousand of his Persian troops to buried in it, and then to cover the hole with leaves. He wanted to conceal the extent of his loss.
*Xerxes fleet fought at the pass of Thermopylae and gained possession of the pass (a narrow space btwn. the mountains & the sea).
*The Greeks had originally planned to fight at Thessaly, but upon further consideration they fell back to Thermopylae and Thessaly surrendered. They had a force estimated at 3-4 thousand with various states of Greece, and were commanded by the Spartan Leonidas (who had brought with him 300 of his own men). They planned to send more troops, but Xerxes advanced too quickly with over a million men.
*The Greeks debated what they should do. They considered dropping back to the isthmus, but that was strongly opposed by the Greeks who represented countries without Peloponnesus, whose states would be left wholly to the mercy of the enemy. In the end, they decided to stay, and positioned themselves in various locations.
*Xerxes thought that the small number of men would retreat, and waited a few days. But at length he did not and on the morning of the 5th day he sent out a detachment of troops (Medes) to go down the pass, seize all the Greeks and bring them back alive. The Medes were the best troops in the army, outside of the Immortals.
*However, a few hours later a messenger came asking for re-enforcements. That night they came back exhausted and with many wounded. Several had died. Xerxes was shocked and angered. The next morning he sent the Immortals. He also advanced to the area and set up a throne above to watch. The Immortals advanced, but their large number did not help, because of narrowness of the defile. The Greeks were also more athletic and had longer spears. At night the Immortals withdrew. Things continued thus for 1 or 2 more days, when a Greek countryman "Ephialtes" appeared in their camp and informed them of a secret path leading along a wild and hidden chasm in the mountains, by which he could guide a body of Persians to the summit of the hills overhanging the pass at a point below the Greek entrenchment. This would make it easy for the Persians to surround the Greeks and shut them in. Xerxes was delighted.
*Troops were sent along the unknown path, and surprisingly met up with a thousand Phocaeans who had been ordered to take possession of and guard that area. They were posted, not to repel an attack (the hidden pass was unknown), but that they might prevent the Persians from going through if those in the defile were slain or defeated. There was a short conflict, and the Phocaeans were driven off their ground and retreated. They were not pursued.
*The Greeks in the defile saw almost immediately that the Persians had descended. They considered retreating, but in the end some were dismissed and some stayed. Leonidas stayed with his 300 men, and a small band of Thebans (he had suspected them of plotting treason).
It has also been said that a few others stayed as well.
*The fight ensued and did not cease until all the Greeks had failed. The Thebans, early on, went over and joined the enemy. The Greeks fought well and killed thousands of Persians. Xerxes commanded a great hole to be dug in which he ordered all but a thousand of his Persian troops to buried in it, and then to cover the hole with leaves. He wanted to conceal the extent of his loss.
Xerxes: Counting the Troops
(More info from History of Xerxes the Great)
*After crossing the bridge, Xerxes took stock of all his assets. All told, he estimated himself to have 1 million seven hundred thousand men.(128) Herodotus later estimated him to have closer to 5 million men, as he kept picking up more men along the way. (129)
*Most soldiers were treated poorly, but there was one special group of soldiers called the Immortals. They were so named because there were always 10,000 soldiers in this group. Whenever one died or got sick, he was replaced. These men were dressed in finery, and accompanied with carriages carrying their women and servants. (http://www.livius.org/ia-in/immortals/immortals.html)
*Demaratus also came along with Xerxes, and from time to time Xerxes asked him for advice on what the Greeks were like. Demaratus told him that the Greeks were fierce warriors and would not surrender. Xerxes, however, doubted him. In his pride, he could not understand how the Greeks could not give in to such a formidable force.
*After crossing the bridge, Xerxes took stock of all his assets. All told, he estimated himself to have 1 million seven hundred thousand men.(128) Herodotus later estimated him to have closer to 5 million men, as he kept picking up more men along the way. (129)
*Most soldiers were treated poorly, but there was one special group of soldiers called the Immortals. They were so named because there were always 10,000 soldiers in this group. Whenever one died or got sick, he was replaced. These men were dressed in finery, and accompanied with carriages carrying their women and servants. (http://www.livius.org/ia-in/immortals/immortals.html)
*Demaratus also came along with Xerxes, and from time to time Xerxes asked him for advice on what the Greeks were like. Demaratus told him that the Greeks were fierce warriors and would not surrender. Xerxes, however, doubted him. In his pride, he could not understand how the Greeks could not give in to such a formidable force.
Wednesday, January 14, 2009
Xerxes: Crossing the Hellespont
(History of Xerxes the Great)
*While Xerxes was at Sardis, a violent storm arose and broke the bridge. Xerxes punished both the waves and the architects (103). The sea was scourged with a whip and had heavy chains thrown in it "as symbols of his defiance of its power, and of his determination to subject it to his control." The men who scourged the sea were to cry, " Miserable Monster! This is the punishment which Xerxes your master inflicts upon you, on account of the unprovoked and wanton injury you have done him. Be assured that he will pass over you, whether you will or no. He hates and defies you, object as you are, through your insatiable cruelty, and the nauseous bitterness of your waters, of the common abomination of mankind." The architects were beheaded. (103)
*a new and strong bridge was built, but on its completion they were alarmed by the occurrence of an eclipse. Eclipses were thought to be "extraordinary and supernatural" omens. (105-106)
*Xerxes asked the magi for their opinion on the matter. "Their answer was, that, as the sun was the guardian divinity of the Greeks, and the moon that of the Persians, the meaning of the sudden withdrawal of the light of day doubtless was, that Heaven was about to withhold its protection from the Greeks in the approaching struggle." (106)
*for a description of the huge grand procession that left and headed towards the Hellespont bridge see pages 106-108
*The army advanced north towards Abydos, through the province of Mysia. They passed on the right of Mount Ida, and arrived on the bank of Scamander which was upon the plain of Troy.
*There were stories abounding of the glory of the military exploits performed there, and it was customary for every military hero who passed by to pause during his march to spend some time in the ruins,"that he might inspirit and invigorate his own ambition by the associations of the spot, and also render suitable honors to the memories of those that fell there." Xerxes did this, as did Alexander later. A grand sacrifice of 1,000 oxen was made by Xerxes in honor of the dead heroes (109)
*The troops were not treated with dignity or much protection - a huge storm came up as the troops were passing by Mount Ida, and great numbers died; When they were encamped near Scamander many died from thirst; when they finally arrived in Abydos the army was in despair.
*Xerxes had a great white throne of marble erected on an elevation not far from the shores of the Hellespont, from which Xerxes would look down. He also made arrangements for a great parade to show off his splendor to the Greeks.
*At this point, Xerxes had a moment of sensitivity. As Xerxes looked down at his army, his uncle noticed tears standing in his eyes, and asked what made him sad. Xerxes replied that immensely vast as the countless multitude before him was, in one hundred years from that time not one of them all would be alive. (113)
*Artabanus (114) told him that he should not worry about such things, and that many times people actually welcomed death. After that Xerxes asked him if he still had any fears about the expedition. Artabanus admitted that he did, and had two primary concerns. The first was that he had so large an army and fleet that he didn't know how he would find shelter for them if a storm arose. Secondly, he thought it would be difficult to find food for everyone and that the march would end in famine. (115-116)
*(115) Xerxes admitted that those fears were not unreasonable, also said, "I am willing to submit to a very large portion of the evils to which I expose myself on this expedition, rather than not accomplish the end which I have in view. Besides, the most prudent and cautious counsels are not always the best. He who hazards nothing gains nothing. I have always observed that in all the affairs of human life, those who exhibit some enterprise and courage in what they undertake are far more likely to be successful than those who weigh every thing and consider every thing and will not advance (next page) where they can see any remote prospect of danger. If my predecessors had acted on the principles which you recommend, the Persian empire would never have acquired the greatness to which it has now attained. (...)." He thought they would conquer Europe and not encounter famine.
*Artabanus also warned against enlisting the Ionians to help them, since they were descendants of the Greeks, and he feared a revolt. Xerxes did not heed his advice in this though, and sent him back to Susa to take care of the gov. there. Xerxes said they had demonstrated that they were trustworthy, and wouldn't risk the lives of their wives and children by revolting.
*Finally, after a few more things and whatnot.... they crossed the bridge.
*While Xerxes was at Sardis, a violent storm arose and broke the bridge. Xerxes punished both the waves and the architects (103). The sea was scourged with a whip and had heavy chains thrown in it "as symbols of his defiance of its power, and of his determination to subject it to his control." The men who scourged the sea were to cry, " Miserable Monster! This is the punishment which Xerxes your master inflicts upon you, on account of the unprovoked and wanton injury you have done him. Be assured that he will pass over you, whether you will or no. He hates and defies you, object as you are, through your insatiable cruelty, and the nauseous bitterness of your waters, of the common abomination of mankind." The architects were beheaded. (103)
*a new and strong bridge was built, but on its completion they were alarmed by the occurrence of an eclipse. Eclipses were thought to be "extraordinary and supernatural" omens. (105-106)
*Xerxes asked the magi for their opinion on the matter. "Their answer was, that, as the sun was the guardian divinity of the Greeks, and the moon that of the Persians, the meaning of the sudden withdrawal of the light of day doubtless was, that Heaven was about to withhold its protection from the Greeks in the approaching struggle." (106)
*for a description of the huge grand procession that left and headed towards the Hellespont bridge see pages 106-108
*The army advanced north towards Abydos, through the province of Mysia. They passed on the right of Mount Ida, and arrived on the bank of Scamander which was upon the plain of Troy.
*There were stories abounding of the glory of the military exploits performed there, and it was customary for every military hero who passed by to pause during his march to spend some time in the ruins,"that he might inspirit and invigorate his own ambition by the associations of the spot, and also render suitable honors to the memories of those that fell there." Xerxes did this, as did Alexander later. A grand sacrifice of 1,000 oxen was made by Xerxes in honor of the dead heroes (109)
*The troops were not treated with dignity or much protection - a huge storm came up as the troops were passing by Mount Ida, and great numbers died; When they were encamped near Scamander many died from thirst; when they finally arrived in Abydos the army was in despair.
*Xerxes had a great white throne of marble erected on an elevation not far from the shores of the Hellespont, from which Xerxes would look down. He also made arrangements for a great parade to show off his splendor to the Greeks.
*At this point, Xerxes had a moment of sensitivity. As Xerxes looked down at his army, his uncle noticed tears standing in his eyes, and asked what made him sad. Xerxes replied that immensely vast as the countless multitude before him was, in one hundred years from that time not one of them all would be alive. (113)
*Artabanus (114) told him that he should not worry about such things, and that many times people actually welcomed death. After that Xerxes asked him if he still had any fears about the expedition. Artabanus admitted that he did, and had two primary concerns. The first was that he had so large an army and fleet that he didn't know how he would find shelter for them if a storm arose. Secondly, he thought it would be difficult to find food for everyone and that the march would end in famine. (115-116)
*(115) Xerxes admitted that those fears were not unreasonable, also said, "I am willing to submit to a very large portion of the evils to which I expose myself on this expedition, rather than not accomplish the end which I have in view. Besides, the most prudent and cautious counsels are not always the best. He who hazards nothing gains nothing. I have always observed that in all the affairs of human life, those who exhibit some enterprise and courage in what they undertake are far more likely to be successful than those who weigh every thing and consider every thing and will not advance (next page) where they can see any remote prospect of danger. If my predecessors had acted on the principles which you recommend, the Persian empire would never have acquired the greatness to which it has now attained. (...)." He thought they would conquer Europe and not encounter famine.
*Artabanus also warned against enlisting the Ionians to help them, since they were descendants of the Greeks, and he feared a revolt. Xerxes did not heed his advice in this though, and sent him back to Susa to take care of the gov. there. Xerxes said they had demonstrated that they were trustworthy, and wouldn't risk the lives of their wives and children by revolting.
*Finally, after a few more things and whatnot.... they crossed the bridge.
Xerxes: Preparing for the Greek War
(History of Xerxes the Great)
*Two of Xerxes primary counselors was his uncle Artabanus, and Mardonius. Mardonius spoke in favor of conquering Greece, but Artabanus advised against it.
*At first, Xerxes was furious with his uncle and spoke harshly to him at court. That night, however, he began to change his mind and decided his uncle might be right and was going to reverse his decree in the morning.
*That night Xerxes saw a ghost that told him not to abandon his plans to attack Greece, he still went ahead and canceled his plans, but then that next night he saw the ghost again. (72-73) The next morning he talked it over with Artabanus, who told him dreams were not from heaven but a "vague and disordered reproduction of the waking thoughts, while the regular action of the reason and the judgment by which they were ordinarily controlled was suspended or disturbed by the influence of slumber."(74) Xerxes thought that the repeat of the occurrence showed that it was supernatural, and had Artabanus dress in his clothes, put on his crown, sit on the throne for awhile, and retire to his royal couch for the night. That night the vision appeared to Artabanus and chased him with a red-hot iron trying to bore out his eyes. Both were convinced that Xerxes should go to war.
*some think that Mardonius was really the ghost
*(76-77)"It is proper here to repeat, once for all in this volume, a remark which has elsewhere often been made in the various works of this series, that in studying ancient history at the present day, it is less important now to know, in regard to transactions so remote, what the facts actually were which really occurred, than it is to know the story respecting them, which, for the last two thousand years, has been in circulation among mankind. It is now, for example, of very little consequence whether there ever was or never was such a personage as Hercules; but it is essential that every educated(start of 77) man should know the story which ancient writers tell in relating his doings."
*it took Xerxes a long time to prepare for war, as he had to raise all his funds by actual taxation, and to have his arms, and his ships and chariots of war, manufactured express, and to raise the food and build store houses in which to place the food (80)
*the Persians already had dominion over Thrace and a part of Macedon, so the Gr. dominions lay further south, and Xerxes didn't think there would be any opposition until after they had crossed the strait and drew near Athens. All of the northern country along his route he had, so he only anticipated problems from the elements and physical obstacles, such as the Hellespont.
*another most formidable thing = promontory of Mount Athos (now called Monte Santo), a very celebrated mount in ancient history; it is said that it extended for several miles and that it was so high that its shadow at sunset was thrown as far as twenty leagues [an obsolete unit of distance of variable length, usually 3 miles]; it was also believed to be the haunt of sea monsters that devoured seamen
*Xerxes plan = army cross bridge at Hellespont and advance by land through Macedonia and Thessaly, and be accompanied by squadron of ships, transports, and galleys, which would house the supplies.
*Mardonius was cautious of Mount Athos, as in the past (under Darius) he had several ships and men destroyed along the rocky coast there during a bad storm. Xerxes planned to cut a canal through this isthmus to avoid the stormy navigation passage. Surprisingly, the Greeks did not interfere with this process. It took the engineers along time to build the canal, and the work was often interrupted by the caving in of the banks on account of digging perpendicularly down. The Phoenicians were the only ones not to struggle with this on their section, for they had made the breadth at the top twice as great as it was below.
*Xerxes next plan was to bridge the Strymon, a river not far from the boundary btwn. Macedon and Thrace. He also had many store-houses built at various points along the route on the Persian dominated side, and watched by a guard.
*After all these preparations had finished, Xerxes left Susa and joined his forces as they headed to Sardis, a great capital on the western part of his dominion. He crossed the Halys (the western boundary line in former times) and advanced into Phrygia.
*In Phrygia, there was a town built at the source of the Meander River(one of the streams that flowed into the Aegean Sea) named Celaenae. Pythius "made great entertainment" for the officers at great expense, and sent word to the king letting him know that if he was in need of any funds for his campaign that he would delight in helping to fund him. Xerxes' attendants told him that Pythius was the second richest man in the world, and very generous. By birth he was a Lydian, and he had given Darius a model of a fruit tree and a vine made of solid gold.
*Xerxes summoned Pythius to ask the extent of his riches, which normally was a preliminary to the seizure and confiscation of them and most people concealed the extent of their wealth. Pythius, however, did not hesitate to reply to the king. He suggested that he could give him 2,000 talents of silver and 4 millions, wanting seven thousand, of staters of gold. It is hard to determine the worth of the money, but some have speculated that it was about 30 millions of dollars. Xerxes was so touched that he did not take any money, and instead gave him the 7,000 staters which had been necessary to make his 4 millions complete. (93-94)
*Pythius was "one of the most merciless tyrants that ever lived" (94). (95) He forced all the people on his vast to "toil continuously in his mines, in destitution and wretchedness, in order to add more and more to his treasures." The people complained to his wife, but she could do little to help. One day she put on a show for her husband in which there was much riches but no food.
*Pythius had 5 sons which were all in Xerxes army, and a short time after these transactions with Xerxes occurred, Pythius requested that he could have one of his sons to stay behind. Xerxes was enraged. "How dare you come to me with such a demand? You and all that pertain to you are my slaves, and are bound to do my bidding without a murmur. You deserve the severest punishment for such an insolent request. In consideration, however, of your past good behavior, I will not inflict upon you what you deserve. I will only kill one of your sons - the one that you seem to cling to so fondly. I will spare the rest." He then killed the son, had his body cut into two pieces, and then had the pieces thrown on either side of the road for his army to march between. (96)
*Xerxes continued on his way towards Sardis, where he planned to remain until spring. They passed many interesting geographical points, including a species of tree called the "plane-tree." "Xerxes found one of these trees so large and beautiful that it attracted his special admiration. He took possession of it in his own name, and adorned it with golden chains, and set a guard over it. This idolization of a tree was a striking instance of the childish caprice and folly by which the actions of the ancient despots were so often governed." (98)
*He finally arrived in Sardis. He also sent heralds into Greece to summon the country to surrender to him, a common formality when an army is about to attack. The Greeks Refused, and both parties made ready for war. (99)
*Two of Xerxes primary counselors was his uncle Artabanus, and Mardonius. Mardonius spoke in favor of conquering Greece, but Artabanus advised against it.
*At first, Xerxes was furious with his uncle and spoke harshly to him at court. That night, however, he began to change his mind and decided his uncle might be right and was going to reverse his decree in the morning.
*That night Xerxes saw a ghost that told him not to abandon his plans to attack Greece, he still went ahead and canceled his plans, but then that next night he saw the ghost again. (72-73) The next morning he talked it over with Artabanus, who told him dreams were not from heaven but a "vague and disordered reproduction of the waking thoughts, while the regular action of the reason and the judgment by which they were ordinarily controlled was suspended or disturbed by the influence of slumber."(74) Xerxes thought that the repeat of the occurrence showed that it was supernatural, and had Artabanus dress in his clothes, put on his crown, sit on the throne for awhile, and retire to his royal couch for the night. That night the vision appeared to Artabanus and chased him with a red-hot iron trying to bore out his eyes. Both were convinced that Xerxes should go to war.
*some think that Mardonius was really the ghost
*(76-77)"It is proper here to repeat, once for all in this volume, a remark which has elsewhere often been made in the various works of this series, that in studying ancient history at the present day, it is less important now to know, in regard to transactions so remote, what the facts actually were which really occurred, than it is to know the story respecting them, which, for the last two thousand years, has been in circulation among mankind. It is now, for example, of very little consequence whether there ever was or never was such a personage as Hercules; but it is essential that every educated(start of 77) man should know the story which ancient writers tell in relating his doings."
*it took Xerxes a long time to prepare for war, as he had to raise all his funds by actual taxation, and to have his arms, and his ships and chariots of war, manufactured express, and to raise the food and build store houses in which to place the food (80)
*the Persians already had dominion over Thrace and a part of Macedon, so the Gr. dominions lay further south, and Xerxes didn't think there would be any opposition until after they had crossed the strait and drew near Athens. All of the northern country along his route he had, so he only anticipated problems from the elements and physical obstacles, such as the Hellespont.
*another most formidable thing = promontory of Mount Athos (now called Monte Santo), a very celebrated mount in ancient history; it is said that it extended for several miles and that it was so high that its shadow at sunset was thrown as far as twenty leagues [an obsolete unit of distance of variable length, usually 3 miles]; it was also believed to be the haunt of sea monsters that devoured seamen
*Xerxes plan = army cross bridge at Hellespont and advance by land through Macedonia and Thessaly, and be accompanied by squadron of ships, transports, and galleys, which would house the supplies.
*Mardonius was cautious of Mount Athos, as in the past (under Darius) he had several ships and men destroyed along the rocky coast there during a bad storm. Xerxes planned to cut a canal through this isthmus to avoid the stormy navigation passage. Surprisingly, the Greeks did not interfere with this process. It took the engineers along time to build the canal, and the work was often interrupted by the caving in of the banks on account of digging perpendicularly down. The Phoenicians were the only ones not to struggle with this on their section, for they had made the breadth at the top twice as great as it was below.
*Xerxes next plan was to bridge the Strymon, a river not far from the boundary btwn. Macedon and Thrace. He also had many store-houses built at various points along the route on the Persian dominated side, and watched by a guard.
*After all these preparations had finished, Xerxes left Susa and joined his forces as they headed to Sardis, a great capital on the western part of his dominion. He crossed the Halys (the western boundary line in former times) and advanced into Phrygia.
*In Phrygia, there was a town built at the source of the Meander River(one of the streams that flowed into the Aegean Sea) named Celaenae. Pythius "made great entertainment" for the officers at great expense, and sent word to the king letting him know that if he was in need of any funds for his campaign that he would delight in helping to fund him. Xerxes' attendants told him that Pythius was the second richest man in the world, and very generous. By birth he was a Lydian, and he had given Darius a model of a fruit tree and a vine made of solid gold.
*Xerxes summoned Pythius to ask the extent of his riches, which normally was a preliminary to the seizure and confiscation of them and most people concealed the extent of their wealth. Pythius, however, did not hesitate to reply to the king. He suggested that he could give him 2,000 talents of silver and 4 millions, wanting seven thousand, of staters of gold. It is hard to determine the worth of the money, but some have speculated that it was about 30 millions of dollars. Xerxes was so touched that he did not take any money, and instead gave him the 7,000 staters which had been necessary to make his 4 millions complete. (93-94)
*Pythius was "one of the most merciless tyrants that ever lived" (94). (95) He forced all the people on his vast to "toil continuously in his mines, in destitution and wretchedness, in order to add more and more to his treasures." The people complained to his wife, but she could do little to help. One day she put on a show for her husband in which there was much riches but no food.
*Pythius had 5 sons which were all in Xerxes army, and a short time after these transactions with Xerxes occurred, Pythius requested that he could have one of his sons to stay behind. Xerxes was enraged. "How dare you come to me with such a demand? You and all that pertain to you are my slaves, and are bound to do my bidding without a murmur. You deserve the severest punishment for such an insolent request. In consideration, however, of your past good behavior, I will not inflict upon you what you deserve. I will only kill one of your sons - the one that you seem to cling to so fondly. I will spare the rest." He then killed the son, had his body cut into two pieces, and then had the pieces thrown on either side of the road for his army to march between. (96)
*Xerxes continued on his way towards Sardis, where he planned to remain until spring. They passed many interesting geographical points, including a species of tree called the "plane-tree." "Xerxes found one of these trees so large and beautiful that it attracted his special admiration. He took possession of it in his own name, and adorned it with golden chains, and set a guard over it. This idolization of a tree was a striking instance of the childish caprice and folly by which the actions of the ancient despots were so often governed." (98)
*He finally arrived in Sardis. He also sent heralds into Greece to summon the country to surrender to him, a common formality when an army is about to attack. The Greeks Refused, and both parties made ready for war. (99)
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